There is a lot of talk about “investing in poor women”. They will grow businesses, get richer, be empowered, and invest in children. So give them a cow or a grant or a microloan.
It’s been a very effective marketing message for aid agencies, but it’s not clear it’s true. Especially the part about women entrepreneurs and women empowered. A lot of the experimental evidence has been pretty pessimistic on this front–to the surprise of many.
This article talks about how established female entrepreneurs don’t have the same returns to cash as men. This one discusses the weak effects of microloans on business growth. This book on how conditional cash transfers do many good things, but starting female enterprises and empowering women is not among them. There’s some evidence giving poor women cows helps, but a host of similar trials (not quite out) are suggesting more tepid results.
Before you get upset or pessimistic, read on.
There’s a big hole in this evidence. These programs don’t necessarily do the simplest thing for the most needy people: find very poor women who don’t already have a business, give them cash, and let them decide what they want to do themselves. Get rid of the conditions and the cows and the ridiculous microloan interest rates and let them do their thing.
Now things start looking up. That’s what I and several coauthors did with AVSI Uganda, working with some of the poorest women in the world. Here is the policy report and brief.
The short story: in 18 months, they become petty traders, incomes double, with a big boost to savings and poverty reduction. (Did I mention that income doubles?)
We also randomly evaluated the paternalistic part–whether social workers held the women accountable for investing the money in business, and provided follow-up visits and advice. This actually boosted incomes (by some measures at least), but not so much that it was worth the expensive follow-up. Better, we argue, to just give more women more cash. Or find a way to deliver the support and accountability cheaply.
Why did this intervention build new female businesses where others have seen tepid results? Hard to say. It’s a different country than the others, and women in northern Uganda may be further behind, and more constrained. So perhaps we should expect more potent results. The more coiled the spring, the bigger the bounce on release.
My hunch, though, is that it mattered that these women weren’t already entrepreneurs, that they were given cash, and that they weren’t confined to cows or tailoring training or other things we think are good for them.
Two other big findings. One is that the cash transfers were large enough that they shifted the whole economy, transforming prices, agricultural wages, and the distribution of income. There were winners and losers. More on this in a future paper and post, but the immediate lesson is this: big transfer programs usually ignore the distributional effects, and (more importantly) the distributional conflicts.
The other big finding: for all the increase in business and incomes, we don’t see any evidence these women feel more “empowered”. No more decision-making power in the household, no more independence, and no less domestic violence (among other measures). And they are no less depressed or stressed. This is a common-enough finding in the psych literature that there’s a name for it–“the impact paradox”. But you don’t hear that very often in the program designs or sales pitches. Aid may have to make the case for investing women on the economic case alone. Forthunately that may be a strong case to make.
The story, of course, is more nuanced. Read the full report or see the policy brief here.
160 Responses
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship #internationaldevopment- http://t.co/sl15fp8CW9
RT @socialfinance: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/zwVimlfUib #impinv #microfinance
RT @TheSSEOntario: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/YDgMI0tDL3 #impinv #microfinance
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship | Chris Blattman | http://t.co/iDvJXbIXq9
RT @TheSSEOntario: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/YDgMI0tDL3 #impinv #microfinance
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/YDgMI0tDL3 #impinv #microfinance
RT @LindaSasta: Really interesting read via @AidData @chrisblattman: Does investing in poor #women really have impact on economy? http://t.…
Really interesting read via @AidData @chrisblattman: Does investing in poor #women really have impact on economy? http://t.co/PsDpxRNUll
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship | Chris BlattmanChris Blattman http://t.co/JVlAbMBn0A
Most findings in that direction really have a limited geographical validity, no?. Or at least the underlying conclusions that would be true anywhere are still very poorly developed. I would love to be able to take findings from Uganda and compare them in some way or another to rural Punjab, but fail to see to yet how that makes sense in any way. We ran a vocational training centre in Pakistani Kashmir and looked at the ‘entrepreneurial and economic impacts’ later on (http://rugpundits.com/2010/10/09/women-empowerment-in-pakistani-administered-kashmir/). Women earned good money with their skills afterwards, but what did they invest that in – in many cases they had the ‘honour’ to finance their own dowry or they were then financing their brothers education. That made them proud and raised their standing. But it left me wondering whether that made sense. The seemingly more sensible impact was that women rejoined educational institutions to find a job not necessarily in what they were trained here – the fact that they managed to earn with that training just gave them the feeling that it was actually possible to earn money for them, which school education alone did not manage.
Looking forward to your follow up research into this.
RT @AidData: Interesting new study on investing in poor women via @chrisblattman. Does it have an impact on econ? Check it out: http://t.co…
RT @AidData: Interesting new study on investing in poor women via @chrisblattman. Does it have an impact on econ? Check it out: http://t.co…
Interesting new study on investing in poor women via @chrisblattman. Does it have an impact on econ? Check it out: http://t.co/7z8YFlwyK6
Invest in #women? The effects of aid on #female #entrepreneurship | Chris BlattmanChris Blattman http://t.co/g9BwzE46MK
Are aid program designs so poor, that better results come from just giving the poor some cash? http://t.co/yfY813Mf0t
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/2sbNJkPySa
“@cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/HPbYn1vLoP” hmmm…questions…need to read more
RT @cblatts: Cash to ultra-poor African women: Economic empowerment doesn’t deliver female empowerment http://t.co/IaMO9hvghG
RT @MForstater: Effects of aid on female entrepreneurship by @cblatts http://t.co/tYh5RnshVU – money works. Cows, training, conditions not …
Effects of aid on female entrepreneurship by @cblatts http://t.co/tYh5RnshVU – money works. Cows, training, conditions not so much.
RT @cblatts: And my response RT @albrgr: Thoughtful comment from @ChrisProttas on @cblatts’s new RCT on impact of cash transfers: http://t.…
http://t.co/jcGXAb7nA1 «1AutrePenséeSurInvestirDansLesFemmesPauvresRelateL’ImportanceDNePasLesLimiterAuxVachesOubienCeQNousJugeonsBonsPrEux»
http://t.co/jcGXAb7nA1 «BeaucoupDDiscussionsSur:«InvestirDansLsFemmesPauvres»CarCelaLeurPermetDProspérer,DS’enrichir&D’InvestirPrLrsEnfants»
RT @mattyglesias: Unconditional cash transfers—the most under-appreciated anti-poverty tool: http://t.co/6nlTXrrfcC
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
Invest in #women? The effects of aid on f#emale entrepreneurship http://t.co/aq9aOG0Ew4
“@CGDev: RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/Waku7LPVIG”
Thanks to @tompaulson RT @cblatts http://t.co/uaRJos2j9X Picture of aid/microloans to poor women complex & nuanced when looking at outcomes
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/xg29wOCGU8
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/BY3GnSZ3EG
RT @socialfinance: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/oUkIPGo1g0 #impinv #microfinance
http://t.co/jcGXAb7nA1 «LesEffetsDL’AideAux InvestissementsSurL’EntrepreunariatFémininOntÉté1markétingTrésEfficaceLeurPermettantDSeRéaliser»
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/eL7L2Mvei8 via @cblatts
http://t.co/jcGXAb7nA1 «IlSuffitDDonnerDeL’AideEnEspècesAuxFemmesPauvres;PourQu’Elles DeviennentAlorsDesCommerçantsAyantDoublerLeursRevenus»
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/ujKp7JJJod
When you ‘give a cow’, make it unrestricted: it’ll have more effect. (Told you!) http://t.co/b31NT00eKr #charity #giving #philanthropy
RT @AnMailleach: Are Aid Agencies self-perpetuating industries that exist only to give aid workers jobs? Probably.
http://t.co/bnkhQrgcuO
RT @cblatts: Cash to ultra-poor African women: Economic empowerment doesn’t deliver female empowerment http://t.co/IaMO9hvghG
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
Interesting: “@cblatts: For those asking, the link to the study on female entrepreneurship I discussed earlier: http://t.co/szEoVr1aXY”
Hi Chris, I seem to remember that the first 2yr follow up of this programme found large impacts on men, but no impact on women. What happened?
RT @clairemelamed: Give women cash not cows…. The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/iOJMwZ5LvM
RT @CGDev: RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/CeY2tTbVvH
RT @glassmanamanda: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/kLJPP8tM6v
RT @CGDev: RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/CeY2tTbVvH
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/ZgMZQXXpF0
RT @IanOxfam: RT @clairemelamed: Give women cash not cows…. The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/vnA6vj0F66
RT @IanOxfam: RT @clairemelamed: Give women cash not cows…. The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/vnA6vj0F66
RT @clairemelamed: Give women cash not cows…. The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/vnA6vj0F66
Give women cash not cows…. The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/iOJMwZ5LvM
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/Mpir9LIo8Z
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship, by @cblatts http://t.co/wm2drqAojf #globaldev
Investing in women will boost incomes & empowerment, and see them invest in their children. But where’s the evidence? http://t.co/muAF4Ndyre
RT @KatieHarrisonTF: Investing in female entrepreneurs in poor communities – when it works and when it doesn’t http://t.co/ZqR8VBjJp2
RT @fp2p: When does investing in women work? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship. New research from @cblatts http://t.co/bCTty1Xm…
@agomezvidal @cblatts @caromonti Más importante q el qué es el cómo. Si es sólo dar micro-crédito a ver q pasa, mucho no se puede esperar.
RT @cblatts: For those asking, the link to the study on female entrepreneurship I discussed earlier: http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
“@gutelius – female entrepreneurship – exactly what I’ve been saying! Give them the damn $ and let them decide!http://t.co/WuMbcHv07w”
Cash transfers shown to be good for women but only in providing economic benefits (no social benefits found) @cblatts http://t.co/qlUAj4bcU8
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/hbtVLQgSkG
RT @socialfinance: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/zwVimlfUib #impinv #microfinance
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/FHGlUPnIHV
RT @bill_easterly: Just give poor women cash, they’ll become traders, their incomes will double http://t.co/upl5qlsawD
Well worth reading. RT @cblatts: For those asking, link to the study on female entrepreneurship I discussed earlier http://t.co/HRTqQwzWX1
@FemInt “@cblatts: For those asking, the link to the study on female entrepreneurship I discussed earlier: http://t.co/jVj1rIY1KZ”
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/YRJkoOdyBM
RT @cblatts: For those asking, the link to the study on female entrepreneurship I discussed earlier: http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
RT @cblatts: For those asking, the link to the study on female entrepreneurship I discussed earlier: http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
For those asking, the link to the study on female entrepreneurship I discussed earlier: http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
RT @bill_easterly: Just give poor women cash, they’ll become traders, their incomes will double http://t.co/upl5qlsawD
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
RT @bill_easterly: So does it really work to “empower women”? http://t.co/upl5qlsawD
RT @HenrietteKolb: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/zwzJYjvkOb
Skip the microloans&cows: just give women cash http://t.co/lZ5Wo9gmPD In Uganda, cash transfers doubled incomes/reduced poverty
RT @bill_easterly: So does it really work to “empower women”? http://t.co/upl5qlsawD
“@bill_easterly: So does it really work to “empower women”? http://t.co/6wEcY7m8Sz”
“@socialfinance: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/7ZSYfTN6Xh #impinv #microfinance” We’re worth it
RT @socialfinance: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/zwVimlfUib #impinv #microfinance
“@bill_easterly: Just give poor women cash, they’ll become traders, their incomes will double http://t.co/6wEcY7m8Sz”
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/zwVimlfUib #impinv #microfinance
RT @glassmanamanda: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/kLJPP8tM6v
RT @mattyglesias: Unconditional cash transfers—the most under-appreciated anti-poverty tool: http://t.co/6nlTXrrfcC
@cblatts grants were almost 2yrs of income? How long does income double for? If less than 2yrs is it cost effective? Why not income support?
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/uruQpdI7wW
Alle donne i soldi si devono dare senza vincoli.loro sapranno che farne. effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/r1TIbyGPvX
Give women cash, lots of it, no conditions: poverty plummets, incomes soar. via @mattyglesias http://t.co/4ZKpLMuyTH
RT @mattyglesias: Unconditional cash transfers—the most under-appreciated anti-poverty tool: http://t.co/6nlTXrrfcC
Thanks for the response. You get at a very important question here — where is the value add for an NGO beyond the transfer. My assumption is that for a particular segment of the extreme poor (i.e., the “ultrapoor”) there are two value adds specific to the non-capital constraints facing this population:
o identifying and engaging the “ultrapoor” (e.g., people with disabilities)
o facilitating new connections with economic and social opportunities and resources (“coaching”)
To the former, I would love to see more research into the downreach of cash transfer programs. Certainly from our experience government and many NGO programs fail to even reach the poorest. (What percentage of a given programs’ population are people with a disability? Globally under <1% despite being ~20% of world's poor.)
To the latter, I agree we need to justify using cash for coaching. While, like your NGO partner, we do see it as critical to our success, we are looking for an opportunity to test out the relative cost-effectiveness of different levels of coaching and follow-up to try to see where we might gain efficiencies.
Thanks again for this helpful contribution to the space.
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
@ChrisProttas: Thanks for the comment.
I think the NGO we worked with would have said (and still says) the same thing: we see coaching working, and we see empowerment.
One option is that the numbers lie. Sometimes they do, especially with hard to capture concepts like empowerment.
The other option is that anecdotal evidence lies. We know from the behavioral decision-making literature that the human brain is really bad at making correct inferences from qualitative experience. We overestimate salient observations for one–giving far too much weight to a handful of experiences. Especially when they agree with our hopes or preconceived notions.
In the case of coaching, there was certainly an impact. the problem is that the cost of coaching is as much as or greater than the grant, usually because it means sending well-paid people out in vehicles. The relevant question is: are the returns to coaching higher than the alternative, which are the returns to using that aid money to give more cash to more women. Our analysis said, in this case, no.
To the extent that sending cash becomes cheaper and cheaper through mobile technology, it is going to be increasingly difficult for NGOs to add value in other respects. They need to be innovating and paying attention to the cost of some of their services–trying to bring similar impact at a fraction of the cost. Unfortunately that seems all too rare.
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
Chris,
Thanks for the great post and for your research, it’s been circulated amongst the team here at Trickle Up where our work is concentrated wholly on people living in ultrapoverty and where we adapt a similar graduation program framework to our different contexts (West Africa, India, and Central America).
First, it’s always great to see another RCT validating the real transformative potential of this model. As you suggest, key to effectiveness is targeting: identifying people (generally women) caught at a low-value-livelihood equilibrium (in our case, often a mix of sporadic day labor, limited low-cost livestock, and distressed migration). In such cases, addressing capital, skill, and self-efficacy constraints can support a meaningful upgrade to a higher-value livelihood strategy for the individual and the household.
It is interesting to note where our findings differ. From what we’ve seen, one-on-one coaching and livelihood planning is a critical component. I believe this aligns with what the Graduation pilots have found more broadly. Surely, in some cases a participant has a specific skill (e.g., weaving) and the self-efficacy to succeed and a simple cash transfer is sufficient to shift them from a low-value equilibrium where they they are paid a low contract rate for their work to a high-value equilibrium where they buy the materials themselves and take home a greater share of the surplus. However, given the history of marginalization and exclusion endemic to people living in ultrapoverty where we work, there is often a significant amount of coaching required.
I think this issue around coaching is very much related to the discussion about empowerment. Beyond being a noble objective in its own right, for many participants in TU programs we’ve found that empowerment is very important to the economic change we wish to see as well. In India, our program has had significant success leveraging their savings groups — self-help groups — to serve as reserve of social capital for participants in both their economic and social lives, e.g., shutting down illegal liquor stores in their communities. The field worker and the self-help group both play a role in helping to connect participants with one another and with opportunities, broadly-defined, in their community (from markets for goods to gov’t programs for maternal care). In turn, as their participation in their communities has increased, their economic success in turn has improved their leverage within their household, and — judging by what the participants say — they’ve dramatically increased their participation in household decision-making.
To return to the larger point, from my perspective a shift in livelihood strategy is key for long-term sustainable impact, and that shift has to be undergirded by not only sufficient capital, but the necessary self-efficacy, skills, and network. To the extent that these constraints affect your target population (due to marginalization and exclusion, for example), coaching and self-help group support can be very helpful; it also justifies a longer intervention (up to 3 years in many cases). Where TU has simply ended up increasing the value of assets without success in these other areas, I feel the long-term outcome will likely fall back down to the prior low-value equilibrium.
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/qt7YO022yh
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
Critical gap in poverty reduction fight is data on the impact of female entrepreneurs. @cblatts fills in some blanks. http://t.co/BUWC7b5qlp
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/7PJe59yxqh
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
“@cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/v8GC9cCCSM” #fb
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
@sarahmprz I recomended http://t.co/bkt4kasW2B 1) “I use field work and statistics” 2) handsome devil.
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
More evidence in favor of cash transfers to the poor http://t.co/EJLPEfWlRA
Why should I expect aid agencies to understand reality? RT @bill_easterly: So does it really work to “empower women”? http://t.co/znvJ3zwwsM
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
RT @bill_easterly: So does it really work to “empower women”? http://t.co/upl5qlsawD
RT @bill_easterly: So does it really work to “empower women”? http://t.co/upl5qlsawD
RT @bill_easterly: So does it really work to “empower women”? http://t.co/upl5qlsawD
RT @bill_easterly: So does it really work to “empower women”? http://t.co/upl5qlsawD
RT @bill_easterly: So does it really work to “empower women”? http://t.co/upl5qlsawD
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
Very interesting post “@CGDev: RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/pAXnNSRkhR”
RT @CGDev: RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/CeY2tTbVvH
RT @CGDev: RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/CeY2tTbVvH
RT @CGDev: RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/CeY2tTbVvH
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/M52t1caJa1
RT @CGDev: RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/CeY2tTbVvH
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/CeY2tTbVvH
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
RT @SayemZA: V interesting, BISP managers should read @cblatts Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/q…
V interesting, BISP managers should read @cblatts Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/qNn9VAj2b3
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
“@cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/M8SWhoO9yf” @Wikigender @angela_hariche @OECD_Centre
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
Perhaps putting strings on aid to poor women isn’t the best way to promote their autonomy … http://t.co/xWmltz7wrn
RT @TimHarford: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship by @cblatts http://t.co/dFjALDZcxo
RT @TimHarford: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship by @cblatts http://t.co/dFjALDZcxo
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
RT @TimHarford: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship by @cblatts http://t.co/dFjALDZcxo
Better link here http://t.co/j76A0J4c1n
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/dZMEAHm7nh / @caromonti @_nberneman
@cblatts Surprising and informative, Chris. Thanks. Just bookmarked your blog as well. Cheers
Where aid counts and what kind http://t.co/BwZ2Iadw5n
Will do! I also wonder about money that goes to a family unit rather than either man or wife… @cblatts
RT @TimHarford: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship by @cblatts http://t.co/dFjALDZcxo
Wait for my other study next week! RT @tanyacothran: But study doesn’t look @ diff outcome of men vs. women invest? http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship by @cblatts http://t.co/dFjALDZcxo
But study doesn’t look @ diff outcome of men vs. women invest? @cblatts The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/4yVNNnegnT
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
@clblatts reviews holes in the evidence about micro aid and gender http://t.co/IaVrarSAue
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd
Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/RCyr6bzQjJ
RT @cblatts: Invest in women? The effects of aid on female entrepreneurship http://t.co/DkZm9VkISd